The elevational range of growth of Spartina alterniflora at locations along the east coast of America, San Francisco, east coast of China, east coast of Japan and the west coast of Korea, modified from McKee and Patrick (1988). 1: Kimura et al. 2016, 2: Callaway and Josselyn 1992, 3: present study, 4: Zhang et al. 2004, 5: Byers and Chmura 2007. HTL: Half Tide Level